2018;12:300. Select Accept to consent or Reject to decline non-essential cookies for this use. First published Wed Nov 21, 2007; substantive revision Fri Oct 30, 2020. Religion plays a large part in the ethical issue of abortion, just like with . iEthics: An Interprofessional Ethics Curriculum. There are several varieties of utilitarianism. Reimagining Medical Education in the Age of AI, Steven A. Wartman, MD, PhD and C. Donald Combs, PhD. Information. As considered here, numerous applications of FRT in health care settings suggest the ethical, clinical, and legal importance of informed consent, data input and analysis quality, effective communication about incidental findings, and potential influence on patient-clinician relationships. The most famous version of non-consequentialism is deontology, which holds that one has an absolute duty to obey certain rules. Given the exhaustion of most, if not all, negotiation and compromise within a diplomatic and political framework, the minority have two options: 1) rebellion till death; 2) subjugation till death. Epub 2014 Sep 24. Instant access to millions of ebooks, audiobooks, magazines, podcasts and more. Robert M. Taylor, in Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 2013 Deontology. Katy Baker studied Philosophy at the University of Kent and is now part of the Philosophy Now team. X. Front Psychol. http://arxiv.org/abs/1403.0485. Free access to premium services like Tuneln, Mubi and more. Knight W. Theres a big problem with AI: even its creators cant explain how it works. Is it ethical to allow some people to suffer so more people can live well? We will close by outlining the areas where consequentialism is at odds with current medical law and how medical law should evolve according to consequentialism. Understanding different ethical theories can have a number of significant benefits, which have the potential to shape and inform the care of patients, challenge bad practice and lead staff to. One doctor speaking to the Business Insider claimed: "If you had, let's say, an ICU that was overwhelmed, you're probably going to try and give some extra attention to healthcare workers because you need them to deliver care," he said. Also, in certain situations, consequentialism can lead to decisions that are objectionable, even though the consequences are arguably good. Balthazar P, Harri P, Prater A, Safdar NM. Decision-making; ethics of care; interprofessional working; moral dissonance; moral distress; nursepatient relationships; professional ethics; qualitative research; virtue ethics. FRT raises novel challenges regarding privacy. Consequentialism is sometimes criticized because it can be difficult, or even impossible, to know what the result of an action will be ahead of time. Virtue ethics: focusing on the moral character, or . Development of a computer-aided tool for the pattern recognition of facial features in diagnosing Turner syndrome: comparison of diagnostic accuracy with clinical workers. Acta Otorhinolaryngol Ital. Ethical decision making in nurses. 2021 Sep 17;18(18):9786. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18189786. Consequentialism is based on two principles: Whether an act is right or wrong depends only on the results of that act The more good consequences an act produces, the better or more right that act. As what matters is only the end result, who is acting or how they arrive at the decisions they make is irrelevant. Front Neurosci. Privacy and data protection are thought to present challenges for the use of FRT for health applications. B. Consequentialism- main emphasis is on the outcome or consequence of the action . Accessed October 26, 2018. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. Surgical nurses' perceptions of ethical dilemmas, moral distress and quality of care. But if telling a lie would help save a persons life, consequentialism says its the right thing to do. Looks like youve clipped this slide to already. 2005 Oct;25(5):312-27. Clinical Informatics News. If consequentialism is to take a hedonistic approach that we should act so as to maximise overall happiness then it results in a contradiction. Epub 2011 Dec 6. One way is by using ethical concepts to shed light on everyday practice. consequentialism can give us an account of responsibility. So by treating the individual as merely a means to an end, consequentialism may turn out to be self-defeating. Loos HS, Wieczorek D, Wrtz, RP, von der Malsburg C, Horsthemke B. Schneider HJ, Kosilek RP, Gnther M, et al. 2012 Jul;68(7):1516-25. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2648.2011.05897.x. Tunkelang D. Ten things everyone should know about machine learning. Keeping to those rules ensures that. 2022 Jun;22:100717. doi: 10.1016/j.jemep.2021.100717. Daniel Schiff, MS and Jason Borenstein, PhD, Confidentiality/Duty to protect confidential information, https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320316.php, https://www.wired.com/2017/01/computers-can-tell-glance-youve-got-genetic-disorders/, http://www.mobihealthnews.com/content/fdna-launches-app-based-tool-clinicians-using-facial-recognition-ai-and-genetic-big-data, https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/can-your-face-reveal-how-long-youll-live-new-technology-may-provide-the-answer/2014/07/02/640bacb4-f748-11e3-a606-946fd632f9f1_story.html, https://medcitynews.com/2016/01/aicure-fundraise/, https://mhealthintelligence.com/news/ehr-provider-touts-mhealth-access-by-apples-facial-recognition-app, https://medium.com/ibm-watson-data-lab/keeping-your-machine-learning-models-up-to-date-f1ead546591b, https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2017/09/06/ten-things-everyone-should-know-about-machine-learning, https://undark.org/article/facial-recognition-technology-biased-understudied/, https://medium.com/@blaisea/do-algorithms-reveal-sexual-orientation-or-just-expose-our-stereotypes-d998fafdf477, https://www.technologyreview.com/s/604087/the-dark-secret-at-the-heart-of-ai/, http://www.clinicalinformaticsnews.com/2017/10/06/3d-facial-recognition-gives-healthcare-data-a-new-look.aspx, https://oneworldidentity.com/google-takes-aim-controversial-stringent-illinois-biometric-privacy-law/, https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-professionals/privacy/special-topics/de-identification/index.html. Agera y Arcas B, Todorov A, Mitchell M. Do algorithms reveal sexual orientation or just expose our stereotypes? For instance, most people would agree that lying is wrong. All rights reserved. In particular, it retains a commitment in many jurisdictions to the Sanctity of Life Doctrine, though this is being shed or modified as assisted dying becomes legalised. And this is the central problem; that Jims values are seen as unimportant when it comes to deciding how he should act in the given situation. Computer-based recognition of dysmorphic faces. The foregoing are just a sample of the ethical approaches a healthcare professional may adopt in practice and it may be argued that there are three main moral theories from which these approaches may, in part, spring, namely virtue ethics, deontology and consequentialism. The oppressor, obviously, retaliates with ever more repressive measures to crush the minority by force. FRT systems can store data as a complete facial image or as a facial template.34 Facial templates are considered biometric data and thus personally identifiable information.35 The idea that a photo can reveal private health information is relatively new, and privacy regulations and practices are still catching up. Accessibility The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the However, despite these efforts, the oppressing side ignores the foreign powers efforts. Borsos Z, Gyori M. Can automated facial expression analysis show differences between autism and typical functioning? Rather than taking into account our own attitudes towards an action, by taking an objective standpoint we are able to remove ourselves from our usual social groups and ideologies which affect the way in which we act and look at a situation, and instead we should act without bias. Complex and expensive treatment options have increased the frequency and emphasis of ethical decision-making in healthcare. Blease had argued that patients' attention should be . Chen S, Pan ZX, Zhu HJ, et al. July 2, 2014. https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/can-your-face-reveal-how-long-youll-live-new-technology-may-provide-the-answer/2014/07/02/640bacb4-f748-11e3-a606-946fd632f9f1_story.html. Subsequent actions are mediated though ethical decision-making frames of reference including deontology, consequentialism, the ethics of care and virtue ethics. Managing ongoing swallow safety through information-sharing: An ethnography of speech and language therapists and nurses at work on stroke units. Accessed January 13, 2018. Benthams theory of utilitarianism focussed on which actions were most likely to make people happy. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the She earned a JD from Harvard Law School and a PhD from the University of Chicago in comparative human development. For example, if FRT diagnostic software develops to the point that it is used not just to augment but to replace a physicians judgment, ethical and legal questions may arise regarding which entity appropriately has liability.41 Or if FRT is used to monitor compliance, track patients whereabouts, or assist in other kinds of surveillance, patients trust in physicians could be eroded, undermining the therapeutic alliance. (Feiser) Consequentialism says that the consequences of an action are all that matter when taking an ethical decision to act. By whitelisting SlideShare on your ad-blocker, you are supporting our community of content creators. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. For a theory often touted as promoting happiness, this is a problem. Immanuel Kant started developing deontology after he was inspired by the movement called the Enlightenment, which emphasized human reason and individual autonomy. There is important reason for the root word. You must explain the key principles of providing care, showing an understanding of the skills and attributes required by those professionals who meet the care and support needs of individuals. Is a theory of moral obligation their proponent puts it forth as a framework within which a person can correctly determine, on any given occasion, what he or she (morally) ought to do [ 2 ]. Consequentialism in scenario. Human behavior prediction using facial expression analysis. A few states, such as Illinois, have regulations that limit uses for which consumer biometric data can be collected.36 The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) governs handling of patients health records and personal health information and includes privacy protections for personally identifiable information. The most famous version of this theory is utilitarianism. It means any ethical theory which judges the rightness or wrongness of an action on whether or not the outcome is good or bad. Four major themes emerged: 'best for the patient', 'accountability', 'collaboration and conflict' and 'concern for others'. Articles, podcasts, videos, research & courses tackling the issues that matter. Consequentialism is an attractive ethical approach because it provides clear and practical guidance at least in situations where outcomes are easy to predict. An action that brings about more benefit than harm is good, while an action that causes more harm than benefit is not. A study of nurses' ethical climate perceptions: Compromising in an uncompromising environment. What are the relative advantages and disadvantages of each in addressing moral dilemmas in medical cases? National Library of Medicine Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies Baum S. Using facial recognition and AI to confirm medication adherence, AiCure raises $12.25M. Nurs Ethics. and transmitted securely. Automated depression diagnosis based on facial dynamic analysis and sparse coding. The .gov means its official. If the outcome is good, how one achieved the outcome is not that important. Ghaemi SN, Goodwin FK. Consumerism in healthcare is not merely about supporting hospitals, insurance companies and other businesses. One does not have to be a specialist in ethics to do so. Events and interactive experiences exploring ethics of being human. Utilitarianism judges consequences by a greatest good for the greatest number standard. Would you like email updates of new search results? and transmitted securely. Accessibility There are rewards if you do something good, and there are repercussions if you do something wrong. 2005 Dec;31(12):739-42. doi: 10.1136/jme.2005.011908. Abbasinia M, Norouzadeh R, Adib-Hajbaghery M, Nasiri MA, Sharifipour E, Koohpaei A, Eskandari N, Aghaie B. Williams example shows that consequentialism disregards the agents own personal commitments and allows for negative responsibility. Consequentialism Ethics Consequentialism focus on the outcome or consequence of the actions. Utilitarianism in this instance appears to give the morally incorrect answer. Design: Applications of facial recognition technology (FRT) in health care settings have been developed to identify and monitor patients as well as to diagnose genetic, medical, and behavioral conditions. Consequentialism is an ethical theory that judges whether or not something is right by what its consequences are. Is it okay to do bad things for a good cause? MeSH https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-professionals/privacy/special-topics/de-identification/index.html. The Ethical Theory. Public health ethics only began to gain prominence as a distinct field within bioethics around the year 2000 and its proponents have had the task of defining it as distinct from medical ethics due to the distinct nature of public health (e.g., Childress et al., 2002, p. 170; Dawson, 2011, p. 1; Upshur, 2002, p. 101). A person should do whatever leads to the best consequence. Applying Utilitarianism in Business. While FRT systems in health care can de-identify data, some experts are skeptical that such data can be truly anonymized21; from clinical and ethical perspectives, informing patients about this kind of risk is critical. For consequentialism this is not a problem, as the individual is just a mechanism for maximising overall happiness; they are instrumental. National Library of Medicine We've updated our privacy policy. With this in mind, people will strive to be morally and ethically good to avoid the . In order to meet these challenges effectively, we need to identify how nurses contribute the resolution of these dilemmas. Consequentialism is the theory in moral philosophy that says our actions should aim at producing the best consequences. MedCity News. Viewed from a consequentialist perspective, one of the primary purposes of an organizational ethics program is to ensure that the organization is not penalized for the actions of its individual employees and to avoid the bad consequences that might result from such actions (e.g., fines, lawsuits, etc). Many forms of consequentialism have been proposed that attempt to deal with the issue of comparing moral value. To demonstrate this I will use an adapted version of John Harris Survival Lottery thought experiment (this thought experiment is a theoretical example used to highlight the objection and is not to be taken literally): Let us imagine we have five patients who require organ transplants. MeSH Consequentialism is a rival to such moral theories as deontology, contractualism, and virtue ethics. health goal (including socioeconomic goals) identified by a legitimate public health authority. But as previously stated, war and the strife and chaos that comes with it are undesirable; however, in this particular circumstance something that may be bad as war can be said to be a for a good cause. . Our duty to others can be illustrated using another example, one used by contemporary utilitarian philosopher Peter Singer. The other concern people express is the tendency of consequentialism to use ends justify the means logic. Nurses use their moral reasoning based on their beliefs and values when faced with ethical dilemmas. Careers. Therefore, the absolutist claim that war is wholly a bad thing, or that it cannot be for a good cause despite its undesirability, is reasonably refuted. In contemporary moral philosophy, deontology is one of those kinds of normative theories regarding which choices are morally required, forbidden, or . Indeed, no one can know the future with certainty. Among the most prominent approaches to ethics within philosophy is a highly influential position known as consequentialism. The word deontology derives from the Greek words for duty ( deon) and science (or study) of ( logos ). As the saga unfolds we are to monitor, measure and maximise the consequences for the greater good of the larger number. Shedding Privacy Along with our Genetic Material: What Constitutes Adequate Legal Protection against Surreptitious Genetic Testing? 104-191, 110 Stat 1936. The .gov means its official. The standardized definition of Utilitarianism is that actions are defined as being "right" or "correct" based on the ability it has to promote happiness. Accessed July 25, 2018. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted Information, consent, and informed consent. Use of facial recognition technology for medical purposes: balancing privacy with innovation. Cachn-Prez JM, Gonzalez-Villanueva P, Rodriguez-Garcia M, Oliva-Fernandez O, Garcia-Garcia E, Fernandez-Gonzalo JC. This will take a team effort and true representation of humility and togetherness. In this particular case, a foreign power decides to hear the cries of the oppressed and begins to lend its diplomatic and political support to make a moral claim for whatever sort of intervention to resolve the conflict. This basic form of consequentialism holds an action as ethical if and only if it produces more beneficial/pleasure-causing outcomes than negative/pain-causing ones. consequentialism in what makes the patient and everyone else happy with the outcome, and societal impacts with regards to the distribution of resources and the overall positive outcome to society. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help We will describe some examples of the influence of consequentialism over current medical law. Indeed, many sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal One potential issue is that of liability. The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). The relatively small, single-site sample may not account for the effects of organisational culture on the results; the findings suggested that professional relationships were key to resolving ethical dilemmas. The question that concerns me, is, to what extent is a normative theory, consequentialism in particular, constrained by requirements that stem from Recognition of the Cornelia de Lange syndrome phenotype with facial dysmorphology novel analysis. J Adv Nurs. The result justifies the means are based on a consequentialism. Many utilitarians take a hedonistic approach, saying that utility equates to happiness, so we should act to produce the greatest happiness, and to minimize pain and unhappiness. Like above, what sorts of consequences are morally good and what sorts are morally bad need to be . https://mhealthintelligence.com/news/ehr-provider-touts-mhealth-access-by-apples-facial-recognition-app. January 9, 2017. https://www.wired.com/2017/01/computers-can-tell-glance-youve-got-genetic-disorders/. Answer (1 of 4): The term 'consequentialism' was coined by the philosopher G E M Anscombe in her 1958 paper, 'Modern Moral Philosophy' (Philosophy 33, No. If Jim refuses to kill anyone then he is therefore responsible for the deaths of the others. Perhaps it can in some way be quantified, so that if carrying out some act would damage the integrity of the individual so grievously that the maximum utility could be reached only if they failed to act, then not acting would be the right thing to do. The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) of 2008, for example, does not apply to FRT for genetic diagnosis, as FRT does not fit GINAs definition of genetic testing or genetic information.39 The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, which protects people with disabilities from discrimination in public life (eg, schools or employment),40 would also likely not apply to FRT used for diagnostic purposes if the conditions diagnosed are currently unexpressed. If Jim accepts, then as a special mark of the occasion, the other Indians will be let off. We will discuss three common ethical theories and how it handle the case of truth telling in medical practice as an example. 2013;118:1-9. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-444-53501-6.00001-9. According to non-consequentialism, the rightness of an action is not solely determined by its consequences. But Jim has to actively kill someone unlike the duck feeder for whom the only bad consequences are that he will get wet and muddy. From a consequentialist point of view it doesnt matter who commits the murder, merely the amount of lives lost in the end, so Jim would be just as responsible for the deaths as the captain is surely an absurd outcome. According to non-consequentialism, the rightness of an action is not solely determined by its consequences. Principlism (synonym: principle-based ethics) is an approach to applied ethics based on (1) a framework of prima-facie (i.e., nonabsolute) moral principles, (2) specification as a method for bringing moral norms to bear on concrete cases and issues, (3) analyzing problems of applied ethics in terms of their underlying conflicts of norms, (4 . It is therefore important to weigh the relative benefits and burdens of specific FRT uses in health care and to conduct research into how patients perceive its use. Relationships among moral reasoning, coping style, and ethics stress. A requirement to uphold the confidentiality of information shared in the physician-patient relationship is a central tenet of medical professionalism that, while at risk and undermined in various ways in modern medicine [1], has been consistently endorsed from the time of Hippocrates. Parmar DN, Mehta BB. Something is then considered "wrong" if it creates the opposite reaction. Washington Post. 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As with any new health technology, careful attention should be paid to the accuracy and validity of FRT used in health care applications as well as to informed consent and reporting incidental findings to patients. The best-known consequentialist ethical theory is utilitarianism, which says that the wrongness or rightness of an action depends on the amount of overall good or utility that is produced. In effect we become moral martyrs, surrendering our integrity (leading to alienation) in order to achieve what they believe is morally right. Q: Roe v. Wade may soon be overturned by the Supreme Court, while at the same time other countries are loosening restrictions around abortion rights. P2. The consequentialism theory supports the decision because it has more benefits than harm. Accessed July 24, 2018. Consequentialism refers to a group of ethical theories that hold an act or institution to be right if it yields the most desirable effects of consequences. Disregarding our integrity and alienating ourselves from our values and social ideas is likely to result in a life of unhappiness. 2. In: Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE 28th Canadian Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering (CCECE); May 3-6, 2015; Halifax, Canada:1199-1202. Cloud-assisted speech and face recognition framework for health monitoring. Maximizing Consequentialism = moral rightness depends only on which consequences are best (as opposed to satisfactory or an improvement over the status quo). The theory is also impartial. John Stuart Mill, one of the foremost Utilitarian moral theorists, sums up Utilitarianism as follows: "actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness." 80 Any account of Utilitarianism will have two central tenets. The Survival Lottery thought experiment highlights that there are actions which we consider morally right or wrong regardless of the amount of happiness or welfare produced. Bookshelf The lack of respect for the integrity of the individual is raised by Bernard Williams famous Jim and the Indians thought experiment, quoted above. He noticed morality as an important part of daily life but also noticed there was no logical reason for following moral rules except for recognition from others or fear of punishment. Conclusion: But if telling a lie. Consequentialism's definition merely. Consequentialism is an ethical theory that judges whether or not something is right by what its consequences are. Sooner or later, after all diplomatic and political channels are exhausted to reach a solution, they begin to take up arms against the oppressor. By asking us to maximise benefit for the largest number of people (or, for Peter Singer and other preference utilitarians, creatures who have preferences), we set aside our personal biases and self-interest to benefit others. https://research.nhgri.nih.gov/atlas/. In other words, the morally right action is the one that produces the greatest amount of happiness or welfare. Disclaimer. How Should Clinicians Communicate With Patients About the Roles of Artificially Intelligent Team Members? Nicole Martinez-Martin, JD, PhD is a postdoctoral fellow at the Stanford Center for Biomedical Ethics in Stanford, California. Consequentialism Consequentialism is an ethical theory that judges whether or not something is right by what its consequences are. To identify the contribution made by nurses in achieving the resolution of ethical dilemmas in practice. Do not sell or share my personal information, 1. Nurses' tension-based ethical decision making in rural acute care settings. Principlism is a commonly used ethical approach in healthcare and biomedical sciences. According to consequentialism, the right act is that act which has the best consequences. Also, it does not matter who performs the action, only the action itself as Williams example shows. Aggregative Consequentialism = which consequences are best is some function of the values of parts of those consequences (as opposed to rankings of whole worlds or sets of consequences). Consequentialism is a theory that says whether something is good or bad depends on its outcomes. Epub 2022 Apr 9. Discussion: Furthermore, consumer-centred healthcare is becoming heavily reliant on digital technology. Utilitarians claim that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness and that what is desirable is pleasure and the freedom from pain. Consequentialism is a type of normative ethical theory which states that the moral quality of an action is completely determined by its consequences, and nothing else. government site. Int J Lang Commun Disord. The desire to save people's lives sometimes does not allow doctors to understand that some patients want the opposite. MIT Technology Review. The more good consequences an act produces, the better or more right that act. No one desires the strife of war in life, but it is sometimes necessary and morally justified to engage in war. A Consequentialist Manifesto for the Evolution of Medical Law. Type. Utilitarianism in Public Health January 2016 . The same could be said for Jim who by doing nothing is responsible for the lives of the twenty Indians. Again, consequentialism forces us to put our commitments second, regardless of how strongly we are connected to them or how much pleasure we derive from them. (2). Epub 2015 Jan 6. . Any consequentialist ethical theory has to provide a justification of how we decide which consequences are good or bad. Let us take the example of a minority being oppressed in a country. For example, if I have the choice between saving one of my two cats, Benjy and Oliver, from a house fire, I should save the cat that would produce the most utility over the other one.
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